Motivation and Action by Unknown

Motivation and Action by Unknown

Author:Unknown
Language: eng
Format: epub, pdf
ISBN: 9783319650944
Publisher: Springer International Publishing


Pursuing goals depends thus strongly on the characteristics of our surroundings. Simply being determined to achieve a particular goal is not enough to ensure that the goal can be realized successfully if environmental factors strip us of possibilities to act accordingly (incentives; see Chap. 5 in this volume).

Before we can have a look at influential goal-oriented approaches, we need to answer the question how the scientific literature has defined goals. One of the most frequently cited of the various existing definitions was developed by Austin and Vancouver (1996):

“We define goals as internal representations of desired states, where states are broadly construed as outcomes, events, or processes.” (p. 338)

There are different reasons for why people pursue goals. They might look forward to the activity that leads to goal realization (activity incentive) or anticipate certain outcomes that take the forms of achieving something pleasant or avoiding something unpleasant (incentive of purpose, Rheinberg, 1989, Chap. 14 in this volume; approach vs. avoidance, Elliot, 2008; overview in Heckhausen, 1977). Because humans are able to regulate their behavior based on anticipated incentives, goals are cognitive representations of future events (see Chap. 5 in this volume). Without this ability, we would only act in ways that are triggered by immediate internal or external stimuli (e.g., looking for food when we are hungry; running away from a dangerous animal). It would be impossible to make long-term plans. Wishes are also directed at the future (“It would be great if…”). However, they lack the definitive and binding quality of goals to act (intention; the primary act of will “I want that!,” Ach, 1935) in order to achieve the desired goal, particularly if obstacles need to be overcome (Bargh, Gollwitzer, & Oettingen, 2010). Commitment to a goal activates various volitional processes that support its realization (e.g., self-control, Baumeister, Vohs, & Tice, 2007; implemental mindset, implementation intentions, see Chap. 12 in this volume; strategies of behavioral control, see Chap. 13 in this volume).

Committing to a goal (i.e., forming an intention) is in fact the decisive step from wish to action. Psychologists clearly differentiate between goal setting and goal striving (Bargh, Gollwitzer, & Oettingen, 2010; Gollwitzer, 1990; Kuhl, 1984). Very different questions can be asked about the two important phases: What kinds of goals do people set? What determines how strongly they commit to certain goals? What is the relationship between goal striving, performance and well-being? What determines which goals are realized successfully? Is it possible to commit too strongly or to persist for too long?

Apart from the distinctive processes of goal setting and goal striving, the third central issue in the research on goals is the cognitive representation of goals. Goals need to remain active even if there is currently no way to realize them or if we have to interrupt a behavioral sequence (Goschke & Kuhl, 1993). If we forgot an intention like we forget a phone number we never call, goal pursuit would be extremely difficult.

This chapter is structured based on four topics that occur in chronological order



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