States of Consciousness by Dean Cvetkovic & Irena Cosic

Author:Dean Cvetkovic & Irena Cosic
Language: eng
Format: epub
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg

6.2 Scientific Theories

6.2.1 The Nature of Scientific Theories

A scientific theory may be defined as an explanation that accounts for the covariance between two phenomena. This may consist of a proposed mechanism whereby one event causes another, which accounts for a contiguous covariation (Koslowski 1996). Theories may also account for the covariation of two phenomena by positing an underlying third variable. Thus, a neuroscientist might identify covariations between physiological variables, or between physiological and phenomenological variables. However, in searching for underlying mechanisms, distinguishing causation from correlation may be difficult, due to the reciprocal interactions between the brain and behaviour and the limitations in the methodologies used to observe the variables of interest.

Philosophers of science have argued that statements about observations of variables can only be made within the context of some sort of theory, even if low-level; that is, that all observations are already both theory-dependent and theory-laden (Chalmers 1982). In science, the methodology used to manipulate and/or collect observations about variables of interest will also be influenced, if not entailed, by the theoretical framework itself and the nature of the covariations to be thus investigated. The methodologies can be effective only to the extent that the theories about the phenomenon are more or less veracious. Additionally, only those observations pertinent to the theory will be recorded, so that if the theory is misleading, other potentially relevant factors may be passed over (Koslowski 1996). Meaningful arrangement and interpretation of findings will be theory-dependent also, for even if the findings are anomalous, they will be interpreted, initially at least, in relation to the original theory.

Theories, methodologies and observations are also interdependent (Koslowski 1996; Laudan 1984). The nature of observations gathered may suggest improvements to methodological instruments and practices. Empirical discoveries and new technologies may shape new methodological attitudes, enabling more rigorous testing of theories through more precise observations. Observations consistent with the theory will strengthen the theory’s claim to veracity. Anomalous observations may lead to the articulation or modification of the original theory. Articulation includes revising, clarifying or refining a hypothesis in answer to new data, both congruent and incongruent; it may also involve identifying the limits of an explanation by specifying the situations to which the posited mechanism does or does not apply, or by specifying a variant on the mechanism under differing conditions (Kuhn 1996). Changes to a theory may suggest the use of other methodological instruments and practices in order to test new hypotheses generated by the modified theory. New sets of observations will then feed back at the theoretical and methodological levels, a process that can be described as scientific bootstrapping (Koslowski 1996).

As Koslowski argues, science may be said to progress by this process of bootstrapping when theory, method and observations enhance each other over time (Koslowski 1996). Thus, if a working hypothesis derived from a theory is supported by the observations collected, thereby supporting the existence of the posited mechanism, then this mechanism may suggest likely additional covariations. These in turn help to refine the working hypothesis

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