The Middle East (Beginner's Guides) by Robins Philip

Author:Robins, Philip [Robins, Philip]
Language: eng
Format: mobi
Publisher: Oneworld Publications (academic)
Published: 2011-05-30T16:00:00+00:00

The second reason for the increasing impetus behind political reform was the ‘demonstration effect’ of the collapse of the Soviet empire and the emergence of a collection of liberalising states in the developing world, including many of those on the continents of Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa. This factor has to be treated with care. Some of the loosening up of the Middle Eastern states (e.g. Algeria and Jordan mentioned above) had occurred before the positive domino effect of regime collapse in Eastern Europe. Also some of these changes, such as the fall of President Nicolae Ceacescu in Romania, were used by authoritarian regimes, notably that of Saddam Hussein in Iraq, to bind the ruling group more closely together. Nevertheless, these changes were important because they brought home to presidents and emirs alike in the Middle East the emerging global momentum for liberal change. It was no longer acceptable for the Middle East to remain impervious to such influences.

The nature of the challenge to Middle East rulers had therefore changed. From the relatively straightforward retention of regime power emerged the altogether more ticklish goal of retaining power while implementing, or at least appearing to implement, reform. This was especially important because of the increasing need to mollify the US, the world’s remaining super-power in an initially unipolar world in the aftermath of the Cold War. The US, as a government and as a society, was increasingly minded to use a range of liberal freedoms as a benchmark of how suitable the maintenance of cordial bilateral relations might be. This began with women’s rights campaigners in the aftermath of the liberation of Kuwait, where women did not have the franchise, and continued with a gamut of freedoms. Unfortunately, Washington was easily satisfied as far as liberalisation and democratisation were concerned. The formal aspects of democracy, such as elections and assemblies, were increasingly confused with its substance, such as accountability, scrutiny and participation. This gave rulers and regimes a margin within which to operate. Thus was begun the era of limited reform from above.

An early proponent of this strategy was King Hussein of Jordan. He had no choice but to adopt substantive liberal reform because of the economic crisis of 1988–89. In addition to restoring an invigorated parliamentary life, political prisoners were released, political parties were legalised for the first time in three decades and press freedom flourished. In all of these areas the king was running to catch up with a pent-up will for reform. The situation changed in 1990–91 when, with corruption investigations pending, the king adroitly moved to maximise the opportunity for domestic benefits from the Iraq/Kuwait crisis. He indulged the pro-Saddam populism of his people and bought a new surge of instant popularity, albeit it at the cost of a passing criticism from among traditional friends in the West. In the intensity of the conflict and Hussein’s newly galvanised popularity, corruption investigations, which it had been feared would go to the top, were quietly dropped. This renewed authority enabled the king to reposition himself at the forefront of the reform process.

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