Mind over machine : the power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer by Dreyfus Hubert L;Dreyfus Stuart E;Athanasiou Tom & Dreyfus Stuart E & Athanasiou Tom

Author:Dreyfus, Hubert L;Dreyfus, Stuart E;Athanasiou, Tom & Dreyfus, Stuart E & Athanasiou, Tom
Language: eng
Format: epub
Tags: Artificial intelligence, Computers, Expert systems (Computer science)
Publisher: New York : Free Press
Published: 1986-04-15T00:00:00+00:00

cally be examined. Such thinking ahead generally confirms that the initial move intuitively seen as the most plausible is indeed best, although there are occasional exceptions. To imitate human players, the program designers attempted to elicit from the masters heuristic rules that could be used to generate a limited number of plausible moves at each step and evaluation rules that could be used to assess the worth of the roughly one hundred terminal positions. Since masters are not aware of following any rules, the rules that they suggested did not work well, and the programs played at a marginally competent level.

As computers grew faster in the 1970s, chess programming strategy changed. In 1973 a program was developed at Northwestern University by David Slate and Larry Atkin which in effect rapidly searched every legal initial move and every legal response to a depth determined by the position and the computer's speed, generally about three moves for each player. A clever procedure in the program actually eliminated certain sequences of moves that could not possibly be best without examining them, thereby greatly speeding up the search. Although the roughly 1 million terminal positions in the look-ahead were still evaluated by rules, plausible-move-generation heuristics were discarded. The resulting program looked less like an expert system, and quality of play greatly improved. By 1983, using those largely brute-force procedures and the latest, most powerful computer (the Cray X-MP, capable of examining about 10 million terminal positions in choosing each move), a program called Cray-Blitz became world computer chess champion and achieved a master rating based on a tournament against other computers that already had chess ratings.

Such programs, however, have an Achilles' heel. While they are perfect tacticians when there are many captures and checks and a decisive outcome can be found within the computer's foreseeable future (now about four moves ahead for each player), computers lack any sense of chess strategy. Fairly good players who understand that fact can direct the game into long-range strategic channels, thereby defeating the computer, even though those players have a somewhat lower chess rating than the machine has achieved based on play against other machines and human beings who do not recognize the strategic blindness. The ratings held by computers and reported in the press accurately reflect their performance against other computers and

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