The Expanding Circle: Ethics, Evolution, and Moral Progress by Singer Peter

Author:Singer, Peter [Singer, Peter]
Language: eng
Format: epub
Tags: Philosophy & Social Aspects, Evolution, Politics, Sociology, Science, ISBN-13: 9780691150697, Psychology, Ethics & Moral Philosophy, Philosophy, Reference, Life Sciences, Princeton University Press
ISBN: 9780691150697
Google: QcVRmQEACAAJ
Amazon: 0691150699
Goodreads: 11417583
Publisher: Princeton University Press
Published: 1981-01-01T08:00:00+00:00

REASON

I 111

yet-let us cling to the simpler idea that ethics evolved out of our social instincts and our capacity to reason. And let us cling to the principle of equal consideration of interests-which relies on nothing but the fact that we have interests, and the fact that we are rational enough to take a broader point of view from which our own interests are no more important than the interests of others-as a uniquely rational basis for ethical decision-making.

EXPANDING THE CIRCLE OF ETHICS

The idea of impartiality was originally introduced into this discussion because ethics involves justifying one's conduct to one's tribal group or society. The philosophical argument of the last few pages invoked the idea of impartiality but left out the reference to one's own society. This is a significant omission which I must now explain. Obviously there are actions one can defend in a manner that is acceptable within one's own society, but unacceptable to members of other societies. Tribal moralities often take exactly this form. Obligations are limited to members of the tribe; strangers have very limited rights, or no rights at all. Killing a member of the tribe is wrong and will be punished, but killing a member of another tribe whose path you happen to cross is laudable.

Nor is this distinction between one's own kind and others limited to illiterate tribes. In the Bible we read the command to the Hebrews:

When your brother is reduced to poverty and sells himself to you, you shall not use him to work for you as a slave .... Such slaves as you have, male or female, shall come from the na-

112

I THE EXPAJI,;DING CIRCLE

tions round about you; from them you may buy slaves. You may also buy the children of those who have settled and lodge with you and such of their family as are born in the land.

These may become your property, and you may leave them to your sons after you; you may use them as slaves permanently.

But your fellow-lsraelites you shall not drive with ruthless severity.

Here is a code that could be disinterestedly recommended to Israelites, but hardly to Canaanites. The same general point holds true of ancient Greece, where strangers lacked rights unless they were guests falling under the laws of hospitality. At first this insider/outsider distinction applied even between the citizens of neighboring Greek city-states; thus there is a tombstone of the mid-fifth century B.c. which reads:

This memorial is set over the body of a very good man. Pythion, from Megara, slew seven men and broke off seven spear points in their bodies ... This man, who saved three Athenian regiments ... having brought sorrow to no one among all men who dwell on earth, went down to the underworld felicitated in the eyes of all.

This is quite consistent with the comic way in which Aristophanes treats the starvation of the Greek enemies of the Athenians, starvation which resulted from the devastation the Athenians had themselves inflicted. Plato, however, suggested an advance on this

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